Guido Cavalcanti (between 1250 and 1259 - August 1300[1]) was an Italian poet and troubadour, as well as an intellectual
influence on his best friend, Dante Alighieri.[2]
Historical
background
Cavalcanti was born in Florence at a
time when the comune was beginning its economic,
political, intellectual and artistic ascendancy as one of the leading cities of
the Renaissance. The disunited Italian peninsula
was dominated by a political
particularism that
pitted city-states against one another, often with this factionalism
contributing to the fractious and sometimes violent political environments of
each comune. The domination of medieval religious interpretations of
reality, morality and society were challenged by a rise of a new urban culture
across Europe that gradually supplanted rural, local, ecclesiastical and feudal
ways of thinking. There was an accompanying return to study, and to
interpretation and emulation of the classics, known as a revival of antiquity.
New secular and humanistic views laid the foundations for
modern life in Western
Civilization. As Jacob Burckhardt, Swiss historian and author of The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy wrote, "It was not the revival
of antiquity alone, but its union with the genius of the Italian people which
achieved the conquest of the western world." In sum, Cavalcanti lived
during and helped shape this time of great innovation that was spurred on by a
desire to explore, create and experiment with new things.
·
The politics of Florence
Cavalcanti was the son of Cavalcante de' Cavalcanti, a Guelph whom Dante condemns to torment in
the sixth circle of his Inferno, where the heretics are punished. Unlike
Dante, Guido was an atheist. As Giovanni
Boccaccio
(Decameron, VI, 9) wrote during the generation after Cavalcanti's death, "Si
diceva tralla gente volgare che queste sue speculazioni erano solo in cercare
se trovar si potesse che Iddio non-fosse" (People commonly said his
speculations were only in trying to find that God did not exist).
During his lifetime, Florence was
politically torn by the struggle between the Guelphs
and Ghibellines, factions supporting, respectively, the Pope and the Holy
Roman Emperor in
central and northern Italy during the 12th and 13th centuries. Although the
struggle for power between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire had originally
arisen with the Investiture
Conflict of the
11th century, it was subsequently fed by a desire of either the Papacy or Holy
Roman Emperor
either to share in or to control the economic boom that was taking place in the
leading cities of northern Italy during this time.
The division between Guelphs
and Ghibellines was
especially important in Florence, although the two sides frequently rebelled
against each other and took power in many of the other northern Italian cities
as well. Essentially the two sides were now fighting either against German
influence (in the case of the Guelphs), or against the temporal power of the
Pope (in the case of the Ghibellines). In Florence and elsewhere the Guelphs usually
included merchants and burghers, while the Ghibellines tended to be noblemen.
After the Guelphs finally defeated the Ghibellines in 1289 at Campaldino and Caprona, Guelphs began to fight
among themselves. By 1300 Florence was divided into the Black Guelphs and the
White Guelphs. The Blacks continued to support the Papacy, while the Whites
were opposed to Papal influence.
As part of a political
reconciliation, Guido married Beatrice the daughter of Ghibelline party leader Farinata degli Uberti.
In June 1300, when the Florentines had become tired of brawling between the
Ghibellines and the Guelphs, the leaders of both factions were exiled and
Cavalcanti was amongst them. He was sent to Sarzana, where, after only a few
months he decided to try to return to Florence. He died of fever (probably malaria) in August of the same year on his journey
home.
Guido's marriage to Beatrice degli Uberti
should not be seen in the context of modern relationships where people marry
each other for love, but rather in the context of his own age, when marriage
was often motivated by business and/or political interests. As such, Guido's poetry, which
dwells on love, should be seen as a philosophical exploration of love and not
as that of a husband bound into and seeking satisfaction outside a marriage
made for political purposes.
·
Dolce stil novo
Cavalcanti was a part of the Tuscan
poetic movement known as the Dolce stil novo (Sweet New Style), whose members
are referred to by their Tuscan name, the stilnovisti. The formative
influences on the stilnovisti came from two main sources.
First, there was the poetry of the troubadour and trobairitz, who began the tradition of courtly love, known by its then contemporary
term, as fin'amor in the ducal and princely courts of Aquitaine, Provence, Champagne and ducal Burgundy,
at the end of the eleventh century. Based on the Occitan language of south France, this courtly
poetry, which was a part of Occitan
literature, spread
throughout all European cultivated circles in the 12th and 13th centuries.
(Many of its poets can be found here in this list of troubadours and trobairitz.)
Second, there was the poetry of the Sicilian School, which was a small community of
Sicilian, and to a lesser extent, mainland Italian poets gathered around Frederick II,
most of them belonging to his court, the Magna Curia. Headed by Giacomo
da Lentini, they
produced more than three-hundred poems of courtly love between 1230 and 1266, the
experiment being continued after Frederick's death by his son, Manfredi. This school included Enzio, king of Sardinia, Pier delle Vigne, Inghilfredi,
Stefano
Protonotaro, Guido
and Odo delle Colonne, Rinaldo d'Aquino, Giacomino
Pugliese, Arrigo Testa,
Mazzeo Ricco,
Perceval
Doria, and
Frederick II himself.
The poets of Stilnovismo included
the early forerunner Guido Guinizelli, Guido Cavalcanti and Dante, plus Cino da Pistoia, Lapo Gianni, Gianni Alfani, and Dino
Frescobaldi. Far from being a derivative school of poetry that mimicked its
French and Sicilian poetic ancestors, Stilnovismo brought an originality to and
completely transformed the poetry of courtly love in that: 1) It was an urban
poetry of the Tuscan commune, not of an aristocratic court. 2) It explored
the philosophical, spiritual, psychological and social effects of love. 3) It
championed the Tuscan vernacular. 4) It did all this while
expressing the heart and mind of the poet in original verse that utilized the sonnet, ballata and canzone forms of poetry. Cavalcanti was a
central part of this accomplishment.
·
Early poetry
In one of
his earlier poems, Guido transforms the imagery of fin'amor, with its
beautiful ladies and armed knights, into an idea that love has a philosophical
component related to human intelligence and moral purity by equating it with a
wise heart. He then proceeds to create a series of images of nature's serene
beauty, which he then explains are all transcended by his lady's beauty, grace
and noble heart; i.e., her emotions that are pure, based on wisdom, something
he is incapable of.
Biltà di donna, e di saccente
core
e cavalieri armati che sien genti,
cantar d'augelli e ragionar d'amore,
adorni legni 'n mar forte correnti,
aria serena quand' appar l'albore,
e bianca neve scender senza venti,
rivera d'acqua e prato d'ogni fiore,
oro e argento, azzurro 'n ornamenti,
ciò passa la beltate e la valenza
de la mia donna e 'l su' gentil coraggio,
sì che rassembra vile a chi ciò guarda.
E tant' a piu d'ogn'altra ha canoscenza,
quanto lo cielo de la terra e maggio:
A simil di natura ben non tarda.
beauty of women and wise hearts
and noble armed cavaliers
bird's song and love's reason
bedecked ships in strong seas
serene air at dawn
and white snow falling windlessly
watery brooks and fields of all flowers
gold, silver, lapis lazuli in adornment-
these are transcended by the beauty and grace
of my Lady for her gentle heart
which renders unworthy he who looks at her
so she is wiser than anyone
as the heavens are greater than the earth
so to such a similar nature, goodness delays not.
In this simple, but beautiful
sonnet, we have, then, both something emblematic of the best poetry of the Dolce stil novo, while at the same an example of
Cavalcanti's poetic idiom that is at once powerful, persuasive and, here,
mellifluous.
The crowning achievement of
Cavalcanti's poetic youth is his canzone Io non pensava che lo cor
giammai in which he embodies his philosophical thoughts in a vernacular
masterpiece. An analysis of two passages from this fifty-six line poem reveals
his core ideas on love.
Io non pensava che lo cor giammai
avesse di sospir' tormento tanto,
che dell'anima mia nascesse pianto
mostrando per lo viso agli occhi morte.
Non sentìo pace né riposo alquanto
poscia ch'Amore e madonna trovai,
lo qual mi disse: - Tu non camperai,
ché troppo è lo valor di costei forte.
I never used to think that my heart
could have such tormented laments
that my soul would be born crying
revealing a face with dead eyes
I felt neither peace nor even rest
in the place where I found love and my Lady -
who said to me - you won't escape
because my strength is too great.
Influenced by Averroës, the twelfth century Islamic philosopher who commented on Aristotle, Cavalcanti saw humans with three basic capacities: the vegetative, which humans held in common with plants; the sensitive, which man shared with animals; and, the intellectual, which distinguished humans from the two lower forms. Averroës maintained that the proper goal of humanity was the cultivation of the intellect according to reason. Further, Averroës maintained that the intellect was part of a universal consciousness that came into the body at birth and returned to the universal consciousness after death. As such, it meant there was no afterlife, and, as well, the thing that gives an individual his or her identity was not the intellect, but the sensitive faculty, the appetites and desires of the body. Hence, the goal for Averroës and Cavalcanti was the perfection of the sensitive capacity through reason in order to achieve a balance between the body's physical desires and the intellect. This balance was considered the buon perfetto, the "good perfection." Guido thought this balance could not be achieved, which is why he speaks of “tormented laments” that makes his soul cry, that make his eyes dead, so he can feel “neither peace nor even rest in the place where I found love and my Lady.”
Di questa donna non si può
contare:
ché di tante bellezze adorna vène,
che mente di qua giù no la sostene
sì che la veggia lo 'ntelletto nostro.
Tant' è gentil che, quand' eo penso bene,
l'anima sento per lo cor tremare,
sì come quella che non può durare …
Of her one couldn't sing
other than her coming in a beauty
that our lowly minds couldn't sustain
what our intellects saw
so gently noble is she that when she fills my mind
my soul feels my heart shiver
so it can't continue ….
This
passage explains the conflict between the sensitive and intellectual, as
Guido's heart shivers as his "our lowly minds couldn't sustain what our
intellects saw." All this is driven by the lofty beauty of his lady.
·
Poetic maturity
Cavalcanti is best remembered for
belonging to that small but influential group of Tuscan poets that started what
is now known as Dolce
Stil Novo, to which
he contributed the following (note: translations provided in parentheses do not
match the titles by which are widely known in English manuals but are meant to
be a more literal rendering of the Italian originals): "Rosa fresca
novella" (New, Fresh Rose), "Avete in vo' li fior e la verdura"
(You Are Flowers in the Meadow), "Biltà di donna" (A Woman's Beauty),
Chi è questa che vèn (Who's This Lady That Comes My Way), "Li mie' foll'occhi"
(My Crazy Eyes), "L'anima Mia" (My Soul), "Guido Orlandi",
"Da più a uno" (From Many to One), "In un boschetto" (In A
Grove), "Per ch'io no spero" (Because I Do Not Hope), "Voi che
per gli occhi mi passaste il core" (see below), and "Donna me
prega" (A Lady Asks Me), a masterpiece of lyric verse and a small treatise
on his philosophy of love. Starting from the model provided by the French troubadours, they took Italian poetry a step further and inaugurated the volgare
illustre, that higher standard of Italian language that survives almost unchanged to
the present day. The founder of this school, Guido Guinizzelli, a law professor at Bologna's University wrote the first poem of this
kind, a poem whose importance does not so much lie in its literary merits but
in outlining what would be the fundamentals of the Stil Novo program, which was
further perfected by a second generation of poets, including Dante, Cino da Pistoia, Lapo Gianni, and Guido himself. As Dante
wrote in his De Vulgari Eloquentia, I, XIII, 4:
"Sed quanquam fere omne Tusci in
suo turpiloquio sint obtusi, nunnullos vulgaris excellentiam cognovisse
sentimus, scilicit Guidonem, Lapum, et unum alium, Florentinos et Cynum
Pistoriensem (...) ("Although
most Tuscans are overwhelmed by their bad language, we judge that some have
known the excellence of the vernacular, namely Guido, Lapo and another [i.e:
Dante himself], all from Florence, and Cino da Pistoia".
Scholars have commented on the Dolce stil novo with Dante as probably the most spiritual and platonic in his portrayal of Beatrice (Vita Nuova), but Cino da Pistoia is able to write poetry in which "there is a remarkable psychological interest in love, a more tangible presence of the woman, who loses the abstract aura of Guinizzelli and Guido's verse" (Giudice-Bruni), and Guido Cavalcanti interprets love as a source of torment and despair in the surrendering of self to the beloved. An example in kind, and one of Guido's most widely read lyrics is a sonnet entitled Voi che per gli occhi mi passaste il core (Transl. You, Whose Look Pierced through My Heart), dedicated, to his beloved Monna (lady) Vanna:
Voi che per gli occhi mi passaste
'l core
e destaste la mente che dormìa,
guardate a l'angosciosa vita mia
che sospirando la distrugge amore
E' ven tagliando di sì gran valore
che deboletti spiriti van via
riman figura sol en segnoria
e voce alquanta, che parla dolore.
Questa vertù d'amor che m'ha disfatto
Da' vostri occhi gentil presta si mosse:
un dardo mi gittò dentro dal fianco.
Sì giunse ritto ‘l colpo al primo tratto,
che l’anima tremando si riscosse
veggendo morto ‘l cor nel lato manco.
You whose look pierced through my heart,
Waking up my sleeping mind,
behold an anguished life
which love is killing with sighs.
So deeply love cuts my soul
that weak spirits are vanquished,
and what remains the only master
is this voice that speaks of woe.
This virtue of love, that has undone me
Came from your heavenly eyes:
It threw an arrow into my side.
So straight was the first blow
That the soul, quivering, reverberated,
seeing the heart on the left was dead.
Although
there are many poems that exemplify Cavalcanti's poetic maturity, Certe mie
rime a te mandar vogliendo is unparalleled in its originality, for here
Guido adapts his medium of love to speak of his inner psychological state and
the uncertainty of Dante's reaction in this example of occasional poetry. This is creativity at its highest, for Cavalcanti transforms the
medium into a unique response to a real world problem.
Certe mie rime a te mandar
vogliendo
del greve stato che lo meo cor porta,
Amor aparve a me in figura morta
e disse: - Non mandar, ch'i' ti riprendo,
però che, se l'amico è quel ch'io 'ntendo,
e' non avrà già sì la mente accorta,
ch'udendo la 'ngiuliosa cosa e torta
ch'i' ti fo sostener tuttora ardendo,
temo non prenda sì gran smarrimento
ch'avante ch'udit' aggia tua pesanza
non si diparta da la vita il core.
E tu conosci ben ch'i' sono Amore;
però ti lascio questa mia sembianza
e pòrtone ciascun tu' pensamento.
When I wanted to send you certain poems
about my heart's grave state
Love appeared as a dead figure
saying - I warn you not to send them
because if the friend is who I imagine
his mind won't be ready
to hear of the injustice
I make you burn with
he won't take such a large loss
as if his heart would leave him
if he heard of the gravity of things
and you well know I'm Love
for this reason I leave you my semblance
and carry away your thoughts.
Guido tells
Dante of how desire, how "wanting" has ruined his heart. He
dramatically reinforces his condition through the appearance of Love—the
medieval and Renaissance view of Love as Cupid matured into a grown man—in
the guise of death, as if Guido is indeed on the verge of leaving this world.
Love then warns him not to send this poem to Dante, who is not ready to deal
with Guido's condition, given the depth of friendship Dante feels for him. Love
also acknowledges that what he makes humanity suffer is "unjust," In
sum, because of the love he has felt in life, Guido is ruined, and because of
the depth of friendship Dante holds for him, Guido fears he may be ruined as
well, seeing him in such a state.
·
Poetic masterpiece "Donna me prega"
Through his study of Averroës, and perhaps due to his native temperament,
Cavalcanti held the pessimistic view that humans were limited in the sort of
ultimate attainment they could achieve. The intellect could never be brought
into a harmony based on reason with bodily desires. This affinity for the ideas
of Averroës would have lent to his reputation that he was an atheist.
The crowning achievement of Guido's
poetic career is his masterpiece, the philosophical canzone Donna me prega (A lady asks me). It is
a full-fledged treatise of his personal thoughts and beliefs on love. Through
it, he transforms all that came before him and influenced him: courtly love, the troubadours, the Sicilian School and his peers of the Dolce stil novo.
Guido says he was prompted to write
it by his mistress, according to a formula very widespread in the tradition of
love poetry. As such, Guido's doctrine draws on the greatest medieval poets or
scholars, such as Chrétien
de Troyes and Brunetto Latini. There are several hints to the Roman de la Rose, then considered the
"Bible" of courtly love. For example, in the famous line "a man
who does not experience it [love] cannot picture it", a common axiom
variously quoted from the troubadours to Dante's Vita Nuova. "Donna me prega", a
remarkable anatomy of love, is divided into five stanzas of fourteen variously
rhymed lines of eleven syllables each. The subject is divided into eight
chapters dealing with
- Where love is located in the human body
- What causes
it
- What his
faculties (virtues) are
- His power (what it can do or cause)
- His essence (what it is made of)
- His motions (or alterations it causes in the human body or mind)
- What makes us call it love
- The possibility of probing its effects using our sight.
In short, the sensitive, like the
rational soul is located in the brain, but does not produce
love-feelings unless the eyes meet those of a particular woman who has
exclusive affinity to him. This complies with Aristotle's theory of cause and effect,
whereby no effect can proceed from an object if the object has not the
potential to accomplish it. When a woman's look meet the eyes of a man, the
potential for love grows into passion, a spirit or fluid that possesses all his
faculties. Such a passion needs more and more love to satisfy its ever-growing
appetite, until (when desire outstrips human limits) he is led to insanity and death.
This highly philosophical canzone
was extremely influential, and it was commented upon by authors including Dino del Garbo, pseudo-Giles, Giles of Rome, Marsilio Ficino, Pico
della Mirandola, Iacopo Mini,
and Fracesco de Vieri (see Enrico Fenzi, La canzone d'amore di
Guido Cavalcanti e i suoi antichi commenti, Melangolo, 1999).
While this has very little to do
with modern psychology, Guido's philosophy of spiritelli
was part of the guiding principles of Arabic medicine, considered very advanced at
Dante's times. The merit of such philosophy in Cavalcanti's verse is its ability to describe what goes through
the poet's mind in a very detailed, personal manner, creating sensuous,
autobiographic poetry. This is revolutionary compared to the rhetoric and
academic-seeming manner of the Sicilian and Neo-Sicilian Schools that had preceded the
Dolce Stil Novo and, perhaps, a sign of the changing times.
Legacy
Cavalcanti is widely regarded as the
first major poet of Italian
literature: Dante
calls him "mentor". In the Commedia he says through Oderisi da Gubbio that "...ha tolto l'uno a
l'altro Guido / la gloria de la lingua" (Purgatory XI, 97-8): the verse of
the latter, younger Guido (Cavalcanti) has surpassed that of the former,
(Guido) Guinizzelli, the founder of Dolce Stil Novo. Dante sees in Guido his mentor;
his meter, his language deeply inspire his work (cfr. De
Vulgari Eloquentia),
though Guido's esthetic materialism would be taken a step further to an
entirely new spiritual, Christian vision of the gentler sex, as personified by
Beatrice whose soul becomes Dante's guide to Paradise.
Guido's controversial personality
and beliefs attracted the interest of Boccaccio, who made him one of the most
famous heretical characters in his Decameron, helping popularise the belief
about his atheism. Cavalcanti would be studied with perhaps more
interest during the Renaissance, by such scholars as Luigi Pulci and Pico
della Mirandola. By
passing to Dante's study of the Italian language, Guido's style has influenced
all those who, like cardinal Pietro Bembo, helped turn the volgare
illustre into today's Italian language.
Cavalcanti was to become a strong
influence on a number of writers associated with the development of Modernist poetry in English. This influence can be traced back to the appearance, in 1861, of Dante
Gabriel Rossetti's The
Early Italian Poets, which featured translations of works by both
Cavalcanti and Dante.
The young Ezra Pound admired Rossetti and knew his
Italian translations well, quoting extensively from them in his 1910 book The Spirit of Romance. In
Pound's friend and fellow modernist T. S. Eliot used an adaptation of the opening
line of Perch'i' no spero di tornar giammai ("Because I do not hope
to turn again") to open his 1930 poem Ash
Wednesday.
See also
References
1.
Sources are divided between 27,
28 and 29 August.
2.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/100502/Guido-Cavalcanti
Bibliography
·
Cavalcanti's Rime in original Italian available through Wikisource.
· Maria Corti, La
felicità mentale. Nuove prospettive per Cavalcanti e Dante, Turin, Einaudi,
1983.
·
Tobias Eisermann,
Cavalcanti oder die Poetik der Negativität, Band
· Giudice, A. and
Bruni, G. Problemi e scrittori della letteratura italiana. Turin,
Paravia, 1973.
· Dante, Divina
Commedia, ed. Natalino Sapegno. Florence,
· AA.VV., Antologia
della poesia italiana, ed C.Segre and C. Ossola. Turin, Einaudi, 1999
· Migliorini, B. Storia
della lingua Italiana. Florence, Sansoni, 1987
· Dante, Vita
Nuova. Milan, Garzanti, 1982.
· Guido Cavalcanti, The Complete Poems, edited and translated by
Marc Cirigliano. New York, Italica
Press, 1992; ISBN 978-0-934977-27-2
· Guido Cavalcanti, Complete Poems, translated by
Anthony Mortimer. Oneworld
Classics.
External links
·
Works written by
or about Guido Cavalcanti at Wikisource
·
Alphabetical index of the rhymes (in Italian)
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